Chapter 18.
Education, in its broadest sense, is the process through which societies transmit accumulated knowledge, skills, and values from one generation to the next. This transmission is crucial for the continuity and development of any culture. It enables individuals to adapt, cooperate, and contribute to societal progress. This chapter is a topic I approach not just from academic curiosity, but through the lens of my own varied experiences.
My earliest years were spent on a smallholding in rural Cornwall, though those first eight years remain a blank slate in my memory. At eight, life shifted dramatically as my mother formed a new relationship, and we moved to Bedfordshire. This period brought its own challenges; I faced bullying at school and the immense pressure of the 11-plus exam, which I ultimately failed, highlighting the rigidities of that particular system. A year later, at the age of twelve, another significant move unfolded. With a newly expanded family, we relocated to the USA. I embraced the change, eventually graduating with more than the required credits. However, the next barrier appeared: my step-father’s refusal to fund my college education, despite my acceptance into higher education. This left me grappling with a challenging mismatch throughout much of my life – being intellectually curious but without the formal validation of higher education. It was a mismatch that mirrored the very problem institutions like the Open University (OU) were created to solve.
My journey continued beyond the academic sphere. Returning to Cornwall at eighteen, I soon felt an unfulfilled restlessness that eventually led me to London and Kent. And, since 2014, I’ve made my home here in North East England. These geographical and personal transitions, each demanding new adaptations and perspectives, have continuously reinforced the idea that learning is a lifelong process that occurs far beyond the confines of structured institutions.
Formal education, with structured institutions and curricula, is a significant development in this process. Its evolution played a key role in shaping human history, particularly the conditions that led to the Industrial Revolution, a period of technological advancements and a substantial increase in wealth and living standards. Our capacity for cumulative cultural evolution—the ability to build upon knowledge and skills over time—is a cornerstone of human success. As Joseph Henrich argues in The WEIRDest People in the World, education is a primary mechanism for this cumulative process. Henrich highlights how the psychological characteristics of Western societies, crucial to the Industrial Revolution, were shaped by the transformation of education. The development of universities and the spread of universal schooling fostered a more individualistic, analytical, and innovative mindset that, in turn, fuelled economic growth.
However, this perspective risks oversimplification. Drawing on the work of historians like Josephine Quinn, we can see that innovation wasn’t born in isolation. Instead, it was forged through constant exchange and adaptation. For instance, the very foundation of Western literacy—the alphabet—is not a purely Greek or Roman invention but a technology born out of the cross-cultural interactions between Levantine guest workers and Egyptians around 2000 BCE. Similarly, the mathematical and astronomical knowledge crucial for industrial and scientific advancement was often transmitted from the Islamic world and beyond, highlighting that education’s role was not just to invent, but to absorb and repurpose knowledge from a global network of ideas.
This re-evaluation of history also forces us to abandon the idea of culture as a static “golden nugget” passed from one generation or civilisation to the next. Education, in this light, is a dynamic process of reinvention and synthesis. The development of writing in ancient Crete, for example, wasn’t a direct copy of Egyptian or Levantine scripts but a unique local creation inspired by the idea of writing itself, brought to them by sailors. This shows that people and societies don’t simply inherit knowledge; they actively shape and change it to fit their own needs and contexts. This is a powerful lesson for modern education, which must empower students not just to learn facts, but to critically engage with and build upon them.
The rise of formal education was closely linked to broader societal changes, including a shift away from kinship-based social structures. As traditional kinship ties weakened, new institutions like guilds emerged, playing a vital role in transmitting specialised knowledge and skills outside of family networks. This transition facilitated greater social mobility, allowing individuals to pursue opportunities beyond their ancestral communities. The growth of a skilled and educated workforce was a key driver of the economic expansion during the Industrial Revolution. The growth of population centres also played a vital role in the spread of ideas, providing hubs where people from diverse backgrounds could interact and collaborate on new innovations. This density of interactions, often referred to as “informal education,” accelerated the diffusion of new technologies and ways of thinking, further stimulating economic growth.
Not all perspectives view the evolution of formal education as an unmitigated success. Educational theorist Sir Ken Robinson, for example, argued that modern schooling often stifles creativity. In his TED Talks and works like Out of Our Minds: Learning to be creative, Robinson contended that the industrial model of education, with its emphasis on standardisation and conformity, can undermine the qualities essential for innovation and progress. His critique highlights the importance of recognising diverse forms of intelligence and fostering a more personalised approach to learning. In contrast to Robinson’s emphasis on creativity, Katharine Birbalsingh, the head of Michaela Community School in London, advocates for a rigorous, high-expectations approach. Her methods focus on strict discipline, a knowledge-rich curriculum, and traditional teaching. Detailed in Battle Hymn of the Tiger Teachers: The Michaela Way, her approach has yielded strong results. They both have something valid to say. Ultimately there needs to be a culture where those who are doing the teaching are able to discuss and share best practice.
The Finnish model of education is often cited for its high performance in international assessments, and it embodies many of these progressive ideas while achieving strong outcomes. It emphasizes shorter school days and minimal homework, allowing students more time for play, hobbies, and personal development, reflecting a holistic approach to well-being. Furthermore, teachers in Finland are highly respected professionals, all required to hold a Master’s degree, and are granted autonomy and trust in their pedagogical methods and curriculum design. This environment fosters a culture of professional collaboration and shared best practices, demonstrating that success can be achieved through a focus on equity and teacher expertise.
While schools excel at teaching academic intelligence, they have historically often overlooked emotional intelligence. Daniel Goleman, in his work Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ, highlighted that emotional intelligence encompasses the ability to understand, manage, and express one’s own emotions, as well as to perceive and influence the emotions of others. The neglect of emotional intelligence in past educational approaches may hinder individuals’ ability to navigate complex social interactions and adapt to the challenges of a rapidly changing world.
Carol Dweck’s work on mind-set, particularly her book Mindset: The New Psychology of Success, emphasizes the importance of fostering a growth mind-set in education, where students believe their abilities can be developed through dedication and hard work. This perspective aligns with the need for education systems to cultivate resilience, adaptability, and a lifelong love of learning. The work of Professor Sugata Mitra also provides insights into how children can acquire knowledge in unconventional ways. His “Hole in the Wall” experiments challenge traditional notions of teaching and highlight the potential for self-directed learning, particularly with access to technology and the internet. The resistance to educational innovation, particularly around technology, is not new. As a friend shared, a school inspector once famously retorted, “Stop piss-farting about with computers, there’s no future in them”.
John Dewey, a key figure in educational philosophy, argued for experiential learning and its role in a democratic society. His extensive body of work, including Democracy and Education, explores how education can foster critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Paulo Freire, a Brazilian educator and social theorist, focused on the power of education to transform and liberate. In his influential book Pedagogy of the Oppressed, Freire critiques traditional “banking” models of education, advocating for a dialogical approach that empowers learners to become critical thinkers and agents of social change. The power of such engagement cannot be overstated. A former teacher shared how he vividly recalls becoming hooked on history through interactive learning experiences, demonstrating how direct participation can transform a subject from mere facts into a compelling narrative, fostering a lifelong passion for understanding.
Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences, outlined in Frames of Mind, revolutionised the understanding of human cognitive abilities. He proposed that intelligence is not a single, monolithic entity, but a set of distinct capacities, including linguistic, logical-mathematical, and intrapersonal intelligences. This framework has had a significant impact on educational practices, leading to more diverse and personalised approaches to teaching and assessment. Daniel Willingham’s Why Don’t Students Like School? applies findings from cognitive science to address the challenges of classroom learning. He provides insights into how students’ minds work, explaining why they may find some learning experiences more engaging than others. Michel Foucault, though not explicitly focused on education, explored the intricate relationship between power, knowledge, and institutions. His work, including Discipline and Punish, examines how educational systems shape individuals, regulate behaviour, and perpetuate certain forms of knowledge. Foucault’s ideas provide a critical lens for analysing the hidden power dynamics within educational settings and their impact on learning and social control.
The insights of historians like Josephine Quinn and Peter Frankopan underscore a crucial lesson for education: true understanding often emerges from crossing boundaries, not from staying within them. By recognising that our history is a tangled web of global interactions, we can appreciate the value of a polymathic approach. A polymath—a person whose expertise spans multiple subject areas—doesn’t just accumulate diverse knowledge. They synthesise it, forging new connections that are invisible to those who remain in a single, narrow discipline. This is what I call discipline silos. Even in universities today, professors are often unaware of what is being taught in the building next door.
The future of education and historical understanding is increasingly interdisciplinary. For too long, the humanities and sciences have been treated as separate domains. However, modern research shows their profound connection. New technologies, such as ancient DNA analysis and climate modelling, provide hard scientific data that can confirm or challenge historical narratives. Genetic studies, for instance, have shed new light on ancient migrations and the true complexity of human movement, providing evidence that a simple narrative of “Phoenician colonies” may be inaccurate.
Education, as a process of cultural transmission and a driver of cognitive development, played a crucial role in shaping the social and economic conditions that led to the Industrial Revolution. The evolution of formal education systems fostered a unique set of psychological traits and societal structures that were essential for the technological progress and the accompanying surge in wealth that characterised that era. This complex tapestry of experiences—navigating different educational systems, facing personal setbacks, and adapting to new environments—reinforces that true learning is a lifelong process, occurring far beyond the confines of structured institutions and continuously shaping who we become.
Next Chapter: Networking: Who we Know and Those in the Know
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